Gender in Translation Essay Example for Free

Gender in Translation Essay Abstract Metaphors are taken to be the most fundamental form of figurative language, carrying the assumption that terms literally connected with one object can be transferred to another object. A writer/speaker uses metaphor more often than not with the intentions of introducing a new object/concept, offering a more precise meaning, or simply presenting a more poetic effect to his text/speech. The main focus of this study is image metaphors of color in the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi. The study set out to determine how this particular figure of speech is rendered by reviewing two English translations of the work. The framework of the study was Newmarks (1988a) seven suggested procedures for translating metaphors. In addition to determining which of these procedures have been applied in the two translations, the study also aimed at discovering whether any new procedures might have been applied. The study also attempted to find out whether any exclusive patterns were observed in each translators rendering of the discussed items. The study concluded that out of the seven procedures proposed by Newmark for translating metaphors, Warner Warner applied five procedures and Davis applied all seven of the procedures in the translation of image metaphors of color. No new procedure was observed in their translations. The translators choices of procedures for translating these specific items showed that Warner Warner had a tendency towards the first procedure which resulted in a literal translation of the particular metaphor, whereas Davis had a tendency towards the other six  procedures which all led to explicitation, simplification and the production of a reader-oriented text. Key terms: the Shahnameh, figurative language, metaphor, image metaphor of color, translation procedure 1. Introduction Translation, as Catford (1965) defines it, is an act of transference, in which a text from the source language is replaced by its equivalent in the target language (p. 20). Newmarks (1988b, p. 5) more modern version of the term is often, though not by any means always, rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. Even the mere thought of inferring from these two definitions that the task of a translator and the whole translation process is a simple one seems a naivete on the part of the inexperienced. Any given source text intended for translation, regardless of its text-type, is required to undergo a close reading in order to understand what it is about, and then an analysis from the point of view of the translator. The analysis stage consists of determining the intention of the text which, according to Newmark (1988a), represents the SL writers attitude to the subject matter – and also the style in which it is written. Being attentive to the selected lexicon, the syntax, figures of speech, neologisms, punctuations, names, and many more is a vital role the translator plays in the process of translation. In the case of poetry, apart from all the above features there is a surplus of sound effects such as rhyme, meter, assonance, alliteration, stress, onomatopoeia. The most common goal among translators is, and always should be, to create the same effect on the target reader as the original writer had intended for his readers. In Nidas own words, the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, 1964a, p. 159). Understanding and analyzing figurative language in a text, as mentioned above, is one of the difficult processes in translation. One of these figures of speech is metaphor which is considered by linguists as the most basic where one object is used to describe another object and both objects are essentially disparate entities, but common in one or more attributes. In the following section, the theoretical preliminaries of the study will be presented, which includes an overview of metaphor, concerning its definition, classifications, identification, and also translation procedures introduced by Newmark (1988a) on the translation of metaphors in general. The image metaphor of color in particular will also be discussed along with several exemplifications. Thereafter, a selection of the collected data will be presented, analyzed and discussed. The last section will include the conclusion of the study. 2. Theoretical Preliminaries 2. 1. Definition of Metaphor Metaphor, as stated in the Merriam Webster online dictionary, is etymologically from Greek, from metapherein, meaning to transfer and from meta- + pherein, meaning to bear. It is defined by the same source as a figure of speech, in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them. One of Shakespeares most famous and oft-quoted lines, All the worlds a stage, is an example of a metaphor, where he indicates that the world and stage are analogous. According to Richards (1936), a metaphor consists of two parts, tenor andvehicle, also introduced as object and image by Newmark (1988a), respectively. The tenor is the term to which attributes are ascribed and the vehicle is the term from which attributes are borrowed. The properties of the vehicle which apply to the tenor in a given metaphor are namedgrounds of a metaphor, also known as the sense of a metaphor. Therefore, in the example given above, world is the tenor or object, and stage is the vehicle or image. The ground of this metaphor is more apparent when the next two lines are added: All the worlds a stage And all the men and women are merely players, They have their exits and their entrances This metaphor is extended through adding another pair of tenor and vehicle, i. e. men and women is the second tenor and players is the second vehicle. Therefore, as the actors on stage have an entrance and also an exit, the inhabitants of the world do as well, their entrance to this world being birth and their exit being death. 2. 2. Classifications of Metaphors Metaphors have been categorized in different ways by different linguists. Black (1962a, p. 25) asserts that the only entrenched classification is grounded in the trite opposition between dead and live metaphors. He adds that this is no more helpful than, say, treating a corpse as a special case of a person: A so- called dead metaphor is not a metaphor at all, but merely an expression that no longer has a pregnant metaphorical use. However, he does present a classification for metaphors, but not before declaring that if the actuality of a metaphor †¦ is important enough to be marked, one might consider replacing the dead and alive contrast by a set of finer discriminations; hence, the following classification (ibid, p. 25): 1. extinct metaphors: expressions whose etymologies, genuine or fancied, suggest a metaphor beyond resuscitation (a muscle as a little mouse, musculus) 2. dormant metaphors: those expressions where the original, now usually unnoticed, metaphor can be usefully restored (obligation as involving some kind of bondage) 3.  active metaphors: those expressions, that are, and are perceived to be, actively metaphoric He continues further to discriminate between two types of active metaphor: an emphatic metaphor whose producer will allow no variation upon or substitute for the words used, and a resonant metaphor, which supports a high degree of implicative elaboration (ibid, p. 26). On this account, he calls a metaphor of marked emphasis and resonance a strong metaphor, and in contrast, a metaphor of relatively low emphasis or resonance a weak metaphor. Lakoff (1977) made a revolutionary contribution to the study of metaphors when he suggested a new theory of metaphor which basically stated that metaphors are fundamentally conceptual, not linguistic, in nature (Lakoff, in Ortony, 1993, p. 244), which resulted in the advent of the conceptual or cognitive theory of metaphor. In his proposal of the theory, he does not provide us with any specific classification for metaphors, but rather, he only refers to them in his writings as he explains and elaborates on the theory. He states that conceptual metaphors map one conceptual domain onto another (ibid, p.  229). On the other hand, the novel metaphors of a language are, except for image metaphors, extensions of this large conventional system (ibid, p. 240). Therefore, it can be implied that he believes most metaphors to be conceptual metaphors and some others to be novel metaphors under which image metaphors are subcategorized. However, more than twenty years after Blacks declaration of his standpoint on the categorization of metaphors, Newmark (1988b) was still a faithful believer in the dead/live metaphor classification, as he distinguishes six types of metaphors, beginning with dead metaphors: 1.dead metaphor: this type of metaphor frequently relates to universal terms of space and time, the main part of the body, general ecological features and the main human activities (ibid, p. 106). Dead metaphors have lost their figurative value through overuse and their images are hardly evident. Some examples of a dead metaphor include at the bottom of the hill, face of the mountains, and crown of glory. 2. cliche metaphor: this type of metaphor is known to have outlived its usefulness, and is used as a substitute for clear thought, often emotively, but without corresponding to the facts of the matter (ibid, p.107). Some examples include a jewel in the crown, to make ones mark, and backwater. 3. stock or standard metaphor: this type of metaphor is defined by Newmark (1988b, p. 108) as an established metaphor, which in an informal context is an efficient and concise method of covering a physical and/or mental situation both referentially and pragmatically. He also states that stock metaphors, in contrast to dead metaphors, are not deadened by overuse (ibid). Examples of this type also mentioned by Newmark are: to oil the wheels, hes in a giving humour, and hes on the eve of getting married. 4. adapted metaphor: this type of metaphor is actually a stock metaphor that has been adapted into a new context by its speaker or writer, for example, the stock metaphor carrying coals to Newcastle can be turned into an adapted metaphor by saying almost carrying coals to Newcastle. 5. recent metaphor: this type of metaphor is produced through coining and is spread in the SL rapidly. Examples of this kind are spastic, meaning stupid, and skint, meaning without money. 6.original metaphor: this type of metaphor is created or quoted by the SL writer, and in the broadest sense, contains the core of an important writers message, his personality, his comment on life (ibid, p. 112). 2. 3. Identifying Metaphors The recognition of a metaphor in a certain text or speech may be rather easy for native speakers, but when it comes to a non-native, the challenge begins. The supposition that an expression is a metaphor when it yields a false or absurd meaning when interpreted literally is not reliable because not all metaphors have false literal interpretations (Way, 1991, p.14). This unreliability is proven by Way when she exemplifies through the following lyrics of a song: A rock feels no pain, and an island never cries. This statement is a metaphor, but it is also literally true; rocks do not feel pain, and islands are not the kind of things that can cry (ibid). But how do we identify it as a metaphor, even when the literal meaning seems true? Way (1991, p. 14) explains: Perhaps because, while not actually false, talking about rocks feeling pain and islands crying is certainly a peculiar combination; maybe we can identify metaphors by their odd juxtaposition of ideas. A more classical way of identifying metaphors, which again is not reliable, is the form x is a y. Although many metaphors do take this form, many more do not. As Way exemplifies through Shakespeares Let slip the dogs of war, she states that although this is clearly a metaphor, but it does not fit the form of x is a y, for we are not comparing dogs to war, but rather to armies, something which is never explicitly mentioned in the phrase (ibid, p. 15). She goes on to explain that even the syntactic structure of a metaphor can not be proof of its essence, as it has no consistent syntactic form. She provides an example by Saskice, where it is shown how one metaphor can be rephrased as a statement, a question or an exclamation (ibid): The moonlight sleeps sweetly upon the bank. Does the moonlight sleep sweetly upon the bank? How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon the bank! She also mentions that a metaphors focus can be of any part of speech. In the following examples by Saskice provided by Way (1991, p. 15), it is stated that the focus is first a verb, then a noun, and finally a participle: The smoke danced from the chimney. The trees bowed in the dance of the seasons. Dancing waters surrounded the canoe. According to all the above, there is no reliable method for identifying a metaphor. The more we strive to analyze a metaphor, the more we understand that its creation and comprehension are challenging tasks, specifically for the non-native speaker. 2. 4. Translating Metaphors Newmark (1988b) proposes the following seven strategies for translating metaphors; the examples included for each strategy are provided by Tajalli (2005, p. 107): 1. Reproducing the same image in the TL. Play with someones feelings 2. Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL image which does not clash with the TL culture I got it off my chest 3. Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image The coast was only a long green line 4. Translation of metaphor (or simile) by simile plus sense, or occasionally metaphor plus sense He is an owl 5. Conversion of metaphor to sense To keep the pot boiling 6. Deletion. If the metaphor is redundant or serves no practical purpose, there is a case for its deletion, together with its sense component 7. Translation of metaphor by the same metaphor combined with sense. The addition of a gloss or an explanation by the translator is to ensure that the metaphor will be understood The tongue is fire . 2. 5. Image Metaphors of Color As mentioned earlier, image metaphor is a subcategory of Lakoffs novel metaphor. He distinguishes between conceptual metaphor and image metaphor due to their distinct mapping processes. The conceptual metaphor maps one conceptual domain onto another, often with many concepts in the source domain mapped onto many corresponding concepts in the target domain, whereas the image metaphor maps only one image onto one other image; thus, Lakoff (1977) calls them one-shot metaphors. The following poem, interpreted by Louis Watchman (as cited in Ortony, 1993, p. 231), contains several image mappings: My horse with a hoof like a striped agate, with his fetlock like a fine eagle plume: my horse whose legs are like quick lightning whose body is an eagle-plumed arrow: my horse whose tail is like a trailing black cloud. He continues by explaining that Metaphoric image mappings work in the same way as all other metaphoric mappings: by mapping the structure of one domain onto the structure of another. But here, the domains are conventional mental images (ibid, p. 229). Therefore, image metaphors map one attribute of the source domain onto the target domain. Image mapping may involve physical part-whole relationships, as in the following example extracted from The Descriptions of King Lent, translated by J.M. Cohen (ibid, p. 230): His toes were like the keyboard of a spinet. Lakoff explains that The words do not tell us that an individual toe corresponds to an individual key on the keyboard. The words are prompts for us to perform a conceptual mapping between conventional mental images (ibid). Image mapping may also involve a dynamic image, as in the following lines by Shakespeare (as cited in Hawkes, 1972, p. 46), where the movement of the curtains is mapped onto the movement of the eye: The fringed curtains of thine eye advance,  And say what thou sees yond. Other attributes, such as colors, may also be mapped, which are the main focus of the present study. The following lines by Shakespeare (ibid, p. 47) map the whiteness of the lily and also ivory onto the girl: Full gently now she takes him by the hand, A lily prisond in a gaol of snow, Or ivory in an alabaster band: So white a friend engirts so white a foe. There are many examples of image metaphors of color in the Shahnameh, where the attribute of color has been mapped onto the target domain. The following translation of a couplet in the Shahnameh, produced by Warner Warner, contains four image metaphors (of which two are similes), but only in two of them is the attribute of color intended to be mapped; the whiteness of camphor is mapped onto the characters hair, and the redness of a rose onto his cheeks: His stature cypress-like, his face a sun, His hair like camphor and his rose-red cheeks (Warner and Warner, 1925, vol. 1, p. 191) Also in the following example from the Shahnameh, Davis has compared blood to the redness of wine in this metaphor, even including the sense. But here, the metaphor has been applied simply as a device for making the text more poetic, as Way (1991, p. 33) discussed about the substitution theory of metaphor. He saw Sohrab in the midst of the Persian ranks, the ground beneath his feet awash with wine-red blood. (Davis, p. 205) 2. 6. Formal and Dynamic Equivalence Nida (1964) divides equivalence in two different types in his article entitled Principles of Correspondence, i. e. formal and dynamic equivalence. He depicts formal equivalence as a focus on the message, in both its formal aspects and its content. Thus, in a translation from poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, and concept to concept (Nida, in Venuti 2000, p. 129), the concern is formal equivalence. In this type of equivalence, the message produced in the TT should match the different elements of the ST as closely as possible. Nida further explains that a gloss translationtypifies formal equivalence. In this type of translation, he states, the translator attempts to reproduce as literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original (ibid). In order to be comprehensible, such a translation would require numerous footnotes (ibid). This structural equivalence seems to be rather identical to Larsonsmodified literal translation, where the translation is basically literal, but with modifications to the order and grammar of the ST, so as to produce acceptable sentence structure in the receptor language (Larson, 1984, p. 16). To a great extent, it also resembles Newmarks semantic translation, which he states, attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original (Newmark, 1988a, p.39). Dynamic equivalence, on the other hand, maintains that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, in Venuti 2000, p. 129). In a translation of dynamic equivalence, the target readership is not necessarily required to understand the SL culture in order to understand the message. Most importantly, this type of equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression (ibid) , and is also based on the principle of equivalent effect, which maintains that the translator should produce the same effect on his own readers as the SL author produced on the original readers. Similar to Nidas dynamic equivalence is the traditional idiomatic translationdiscussed in Larson (1984). The translators goal should be to reproduce in the receptor language a text which communicates the same message as the SL, but using the natural grammatical and lexical choices of the receptor language (ibid, p. 17). Also rather similar to this type of equivalence is Newmarks communicative translation, which he claims, attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original (Newmark, 1988a, p. 39). According to the above-mentioned, after comparing Warner Warners (1925) and Davis (2007) English translations of the Shahnameh with the original, it was concluded that the first translation is a semantic translation, while the second one is a communicative translation. Warner Warner have translated poetry into poetry and also strived at preserving the archaic tone of the original. Furthermore, they have indicated in their Introduction to the translation that many explanatory notes have been added; hence leading to a semantic translation. Davis, on the other hand, has converted poetry into prose, with occasional lines of verse in some episodes. He also explains in his Introduction to the translation that he has intended this translation for the general reader and not for scholars; thus his version is a communicative translation. 3. Empirical Data 3. 1. Data Collection and Analysis Thirty-three examples of image metaphors of color identified in theShahnameh were located in two English translations, i. e. Warner Warner (1925) and Davis (2007). It is worth noting that over forty-five metaphorical expressions of color were identified in the entire Shahnameh, but as Davis translation is not a complete translation, rather an abridged version, only thirty-three were applicable to this study. The first step in this procedure was to identify all terms/objects in theShahnameh that presented color imagery. This information was found in a list provided by Rastegar Fasaei (1990). Seventy-nine items were listed, but only thirty-three were applicable in this study, because the list was obviously not intended for metaphors of color, but rather a list indicatingterms that denote a color. Many of these terms were basic color terms, e. g. , which could not produce any potential metaphorical expression implying a color. They were mostly used in adjectival phrases describing a particular object or event. Therefore, all color terms were ruled out, as well as other terms which indicated some kind of brightness or shiny effect, e. g. the expression , in which the metaphor implies that the sword is very shiny. Unfortunately, approximately eighteen of the items in this list were of this kind, representing brightness of an object, colors of the air, and colors of the earth, of which the latter two seemed ambiguous and impracticable for this study. As mentioned earlier, the translation by Davis is not a complete translation of the wholeShahnameh, as many episodes have been omitted. Therefore, several of the items in the list have occurred only in the sections not translated by Davis; hence, deleting them from the list was inevitable. Many of the terms in the list, unfortunately again, were observed only in the form of similes, and not metaphors; therefore, they could not be applied either. After settling on these thirty-three items, they were sought in aShahnameh software, in order to locate the couplets which contained these terms. The next step was to review each couplet to see which one had an image metaphor of color created with that specific term. For some terms, the frequency of occurrence was very high, e. g. approximately 400 couplets, which caused some difficulties in terms of being highly time-consuming. A minimum of one couplet carrying an image metaphor of color was chosen for each of the thirty-three instances via the Shahnamehsoftware. These examples were then initially located in the translation by Davis, as his is an abridged translation. Regarding this, he states in the Introduction to his book: Given the poems immense length, some passages have inevitably been omitted, and others are presented in summary form (Davis, 2007, xxxiv). After determining which of the examples were included in Davis translation, one couplet was eventually chosen for each instance, and then the corresponding expression was located in Warner Warners translation. So far, there were thirty-three Persian examples of image metaphors of color, along with their corresponding expressions in the two English translations. These were the steps taken in the data collection stage. The next step was to analyze the collected data, which included determining the translation procedures involved in each of the two translations. The framework applied was Newmarks (1988b) seven procedures introduced for translating metaphors. The goal here was not just determining which translator applied which procedure(s) and the frequency of each procedure, but also finding out whether any new procedures were applied other than Newmarks. The study also aimed atdiscovering any possible translation patterns exclusive to each translator. The following three examples were selected as representatives of the collected data in this study. (?. – ?) The night was like jet dipped in pitch, there lent No planet luster to the firmament (Warner Warner, vol. 3, p. 287) A night as black as coal bedaubed with pitch, A night of ebony, a night on which Mars, Mercury, and Saturn would not rise. (Davis, p. 306) In this ST context, the poet has depicted the scene as though the night has actually covered its face with pitch. Both translators have reproduced the same image in their TTs, thus likening the night to a black stone ( ) that has washed its exterior with pitch. (?. – ) Raised such a dust! But swift as dust they sped Till days cheeks turned to lapis-lazuli. (Warner Warner, vol. 7, p. 67) They rode quickly until the day turned purple with dusk. (Davis, p. 642) The definition provided for is a dark blue stone; its translation by Emami is lapis-lazuli, azure. Britannicas online dictionary definition forlapis-lazuli is a semiprecious stone valued for its deep blue color. Therefore, the first translator has again reproduced the same image through the same metaphor. The second translator, however, has converted the metaphor to its sense, i. e. the color it represents. ? ? (?. – ) This he said, And heaved a sigh. The colour of his cheek Turned from pomegranate-bloom to fenugreek (Warner Warner, vol. 6, p. 25) Having said this he heaved a sigh from the depths of his being, and the rosy pomegranate petal turned as pale as fenugreek. (Davis, p. 455) The mental image of this ST metaphor is mapped onto the kings face, describing the change of color in his complexion. The first translator has interestingly enough converted the metaphor to its sense, which seems rather a rare procedure for a semantic translation. The second translator, however, has reproduced the same image in TT2. 3. 2. Discussion Thirty-three cases of image metaphors of color were identified in theShahnameh and then located in two English translations, i. e. Warner Warner (1925) and Davis (2007). Afterwards, the procedures applied by each translator in rendering these thirty-three items were identified. The framework chosen was that of Newmarks (1988a). The analysis of the data showed that Warner and Warner applied five of Newmarks suggested procedures in translating the specified image metaphors of color. They also presented two cases of wrong translation. In the following table, the procedures applied by Warner Warner in translating the thirty-three image metaphors of color identified in this study and their frequency of occurrence, along with the corresponding percentages are shown. Table 4. 1. Frequency and percentage of procedures applied by Warner Warner Procedure| Frequency| Percentage| Reproducing the same image in the TL| 23| 69. 69| Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL image| 3| 9. 09| Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image| 1| 3. 03| Translation of metaphor by simile plus sense| 0| 0|. Conversion of metaphor to sense| 3| 9. 09| Deletion| 0| 0| Translation of metaphor by the same metaphor plus sense| 1| 3. 03| Wrong translation| 2| 6. 06| Total| 33| 100| As evident in this table, Warner Warner have neither translated any metaphors by simile plus sense, nor deleted any metaphor. The most frequently applied procedure in their translations was the reproduction of the same image in the TL. The translation of the Shahnameh produced by Warner Warner is a semantic translation, which clearly proves the reason as to why their most frequently applied procedure is the one mentioned above. A semantic translation attempts to recreate the precise flavor and tone of the original: the words are sacred, not because they are more important than the content, but because form and content are one (Newmark, 1988a, p. 47). The analysis of the data also shows that Davis has applied all seven procedures introduced by Newmark in translating these items. There was no evidence of any wrong translation. The following table presents the frequency of each procedure which was applied and also their percentages. Table 4. 2. Frequency and percentage of procedures applied by Davis Procedure| Frequency| Percentage|. Reproducing the same image in the TL| 12| 36. 36| Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL image| 3| 9. 09| Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image| 3| 9. 09| Translation of metaphor by simile plus sense| 2| 6. 06| Conversion of metaphor to sense| 6| 18. 18| Deletion| 2| 6. 06| Translation of metaphor by the same metaphor plus sense| 5| 15. 15| Total| 33| 100| As indicated in the table, the most frequently used procedure by Davis is also the reproduction of the same image in the TL. He has opted for deletion of the image metaphor of color in two cases. In one of the two cases, his deletion seems to serve the purpose of a more easy-going, reader-friendly text (where the metaphoric elements seem complex or far-fetched to the target audience), whereas in the other case, his deletion seems somehow arbitrary or unjustifiable. The following table compares the two translations in terms of the percentage of procedures applied. P1 through P7 are the seven translation procedures involved in this study, also indicated in the previous table, and WT stands for wrong translation. Table 4. 3. Percentage of the procedures applied by both translators | P1| P2| P3| P4| P5| P6| P7| WT| Total %| W. W. | 69. 69| 9. 09| 3. 03| 0| 9. 09| 0| 3. 03| 6. 06| 100| Davis| 36. 36| 9. 09| 9. 09| 6. 06| 18. 18| 6. 06| 15. 15| 0| 100| 4. Conclusion Thirty-three cases of image metaphors of color were extracted from theShahnameh and relocated in two English translations, i. e. Warner Warner (1925) and Davis (2007). The main objective of the study was to determine which translation procedures introduced by Newmark (1988a) for translating metaphors in general were applied by the two above mentioned translators. According to the collected and analyzed data, Warner Warner applied five of Newmarks suggested procedures. The two procedures they did not apply at all were deletion and translation of metaphor by simile plus sense. The figures indicated that approximately 70% of the thirty-three cases had undergone Newmarks first procedure, i. e. reproducing the same image in the TL, which was also considered the most frequently used procedure by Warner Warner. This is a verification that their translation is indeed a semantic translation, as the objective in this type of translation is to recreate the ST, both its form and its content. This occurs to a great extent through literal/word-for-word translation, which is rather similar to the above- mentioned procedure. Davis, on the other hand, applied all seven of Newmarks procedures in his translation of image metaphors of color. The most frequently used procedure was again, a reproduction of the same image in the TL (36%). The second aim was to determine whether any new procedures for translating image metaphors of color other than those proposed by Newmark for translating metaphors resulted from this study.

Literature Review On Inventory Control Management Finance Essay

Literature Review On Inventory Control Management Finance Essay The Assam Tea Corporation is a pioneer in producing high quality tea having its own processing plant with an excellent implication of inventory control. The main aim of this report is to conduct a literature review on the inventory control management and the operations in practice of the Assam Tea corporation processing plant where I was employed. The company has an efficient structure of inventory control and has set a standard for other companies in the same operation in that area .The company produces a high quality tea mostly meant for export in the form of CTC and Orthodox tea. The product of the company is world famous for its high quality taste. They offer state of the art infrastructure in the processing plant with a highly trained employee and efficient way if inventory control. They have various units in the processing plant i.e, starting from the picking up of green leaves which is the major part of raw material.The company has own plantation unit from where the raw material is readily available. Moreover they have tie ups with other local tea gardens to ensure a steady supply of tea leaves.The tea processing unit is a complex mechanical process works under the principle of operation management and inventory control.The function of it is a crucial one which has to deal with seasonal and cyclical fluctuations of demand persisting in the market .The inventory control has to deal with waste management in the unit by finding out the optimum level of demand .The seasonal fluctuations is mainly incorporated with the monsoon season where the production of tea leaves at the peak level.I was assigned with the responsibility of th e assistant manager operations in the processing unit. This report mainly encounters with the various concept of inventory control and its management undertaken by an organisation with stress on inventory and its effective control.It deals with the cost related with the inventory and its profile,Usage of probabilistic estimate of demand and overall role of the inventory control in a tea processing unit .There are various issues how to improvise the situations and improve the competitiveness related to the issues .The method applied to prepare this report with a high concentration on the textbooks and the web-source related to operations management .The information collected through all the experimentations observed and finally resorted to website and standard textbook of operations management. 2.Literature Review 2.1 What is inventory Inventory has a multilevel function in the process unit and the firms used to maintain mainly four level of inventories Raw material-This is the unprocessed form of the item which can be utilisied from varied number of suppliers .This form should be used to find out the superior form by removing the supply variability in quality,quanity or time of delivery. Work-in process(WIP) inventory-This is an intermediary form of inventory when the raw materials undergone a change but not completed. Maintanence/repair /operations(MRO) inventory- 2.2 INVENTORY CONTROL MANAGEMENT In this part of analysis importance should be given when to order and how much to order.The model which are based on independent demand can be divided into three. 1.Basic Economic Order quantity(EOQ) model 2.Production order quantity 3.The quantity discount model Basic Economic Order Quantity model This is the most common form of the inventory control technique .The technique is based upon following assumptions- Production order quantity model The model is applicable under two situations.Firstly,When the order is placed there is continuous flow of inventory.Secondly,the units are produced and sold simultaneously.In the case of Assam Tea Corporation processing unit both these situations are prevalent.In this model daily production rate is determined on the basis of daily rate of demand. It is useful when inventory build up is a continuous process over the time and assumption of traditional Economic Order conditions holds valid.It is the situation where the optimum order size Q* is estimated with an equality in set up cost to holding cost,The production order quantity model: Q=Number of pieces per order H=Holding cost per unit per year P=Daily production rate d=Daily demand rate or usage rate t=Length of the production run in days The final expression for optimal level of inventory Q* is- Probabilistic model with constant lead time Probailistic model with constant leadtime is highly relevant.In the presence of uncertain demand ,the management of the company faces challenges to maintain adequate service level.The service level can be complimented by the probability of a stock out isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦To reduce stock out the company can hold inventory as safety stock. Whereas if Reorder point=ROP=dxL With the addition of safety stock,the expression becomes=ROP=dxL+SS However annual stock out costs=The sum of the unit shortxthe probabilityxThe stock out cost per unitxthe number of orders per year 2.2 COST OF INVENTORY In case inventory control analysis there are various costs involved in the overall process.The cost of inventory is calculated in the form of unit values.However major segment of the inventory cost can be discussed as follows- THE CARRYING COST OF INVENTORY In this segment of costs of carrying items of inventories are included.This is the cost of running a warehouse,cost that are incurred on handling and counting,costs involved in special storage ,damage and lost,insurance,tax and wornout costs. THE ORDERING OR SET UP COST This is the cost which is associated with placing an order and replenishment.This cost includes all the form of orders,establishment cost needed to ensure it,inspection and receiving cost,handling the vendor invoice and the cost necessary to meet unexpected situation. This may be a cost of skilled mechanic charged as per his technical specification.There are various arguments whether the cost of the skilled mechanic is a fixed cost .But Kaplan (1988),all the costs involved in the long term is virtually variable cost where in that period a person can be fired,a plant can come to shutdown. INSUFFICIENT CAPACITY COST The cost involved here is meant to avoid the stockout cost.In the case of production process ,it is the emergency cost needed for emergency replacement of the production equipment to enhance the output level,cost involved to speed up the process,rescheduling and assigned work in split up version. SYSTEM CONTROL COSTS This is the type of cost appeared in the operation process as per selection of decision system.This includes acquisition,storage,maintanence and computation of the data.The treaining instituted by the organization and employee verification is also falls in the category costs. In Assam Tea Corporation ,there are a number of costs involved in different level of operation processes .The green leaves are initially plucked from the plantation unit and allowed to undergo different processes like picking ,wilting ,bruishing ,oxidation/fermentation ,firing,yellowing,shaping,drying and curing to get the final product. In the processing unit ,one of the major cost incurred by the company is warehousing the tea product as well as the green leaves.If the fresh leaves are not stored properly there is a greater possibility of being dried up and becomes waste.The insurance cover and tax are also one of the component. The cost of placing an order is one of the significant part of the processing unit.There is an inspection unit in the company which takes account of quality control in the unit.There is the cost of technicians expertise in that specific line During the peak season as the production process is a complex mechanical one.During the peak season ,especially during monsoon,there is always extra cost of utilizing extra-capacity,expediate the process.In that situation temporary workers are employed on the basis of shift duty with overtime bonus has to be paid. The company has to bear the cost on information system and its maintanence as it uses a data warehousing software.With the present environment of rapid change in the technology the company has to provide training for skill enhancement training to its manpower.This has been done with Tocklai Tea Research Centre,one of the leading Tea research institute .The training cost and performance analysis cost is formed as one of the cost. KEY VARIABLES IN INVENTORY MANAGEMENT 1.REPLENISHMENT LEAD TIME It is the time between placing an order and to meet the final demand of the customer physically. 2.REORDER POINT It is the point of the inventory level where the replenishment of stocked item takes place. Where ROP=dxL where d is the demand per day,L is the leadtime for a new order in days 3.SAFETY STOCK A buffer stock to meet up an uneven demand. OPERATION PROCESS UNIT OF TEA The Assam Tea Corporation has its processing unit for production of CTC() and Orthodox tea in the form of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.which account for almost 80% of the main production whereas the other form of teas are produced at paltry 20%. The tea processing begins with flushing of tea from Camellia Sinensis(Botanical name of tea) and after that it is dried for brewing of tea,oxidization of leaves and ,stopping oxidization ,drying of leaves ,and oxidation has a main part to bring the final flavor of tea. The company produces variety of tea through different processes which can be visualised with the aid of flow-chart diagram. The process itself starts from the left hand side of the flow chart with the operation of stocking into raw material or fresh green leaves.The processing unit of the Assam Tea Corporation is highly engaged in production of black tea and green tea which constitutes 80% of the output whereas other constitutes 20% of the total production. For obtaining a black tea(the red coloured flow chart) as the final product it can be seen in the diagram that after getting the fresh leaves the process undergoes with indoor witting,the CTC with full oxidation rolled to the drying unit done through desiccation and finally drying at optimum temperature,the black tea can be obtained. While for green teaTthe green coloured flow chart) after steaming and panning it is rolled to get the desirable form and finally dried to get green tea.The whole system of operation can be divided into following important parts- 1.Picking A terminal bud and two leaves are plucked from Camelia Sinensis. 2.Wilting With an oxidation done in the presence of enzyme ,the tea leaves are wilted to remove the excess water from leaves. 3.Brushing To expediate oxidation ,the tea leaves are let to fall in buckets and rolled over by wheels. 4.Oxidation/Fermentation The major operation of oxidation was to break down the the chlorophil and relax the tannin,as the leaves are kept in a climate control room. 5.Kill green/Firing To stop the oxidation at desired level and restore the flavor this step is done. 6.Yellowing It is done in a close container after firing to obtain beverage of yellow tea. 7.Shaping After yellowing it is rolled into stripe wrinkles 8.Drying This is done to get the ultimate product or tea for sale. PROBLEMS RELATED WITH INVENTORY CONTROL IN TEA PROCESSING UNIT In the tea business it is the monsoon which has a direct effect on the production of the green tea leaves which is the main raw material for the processing .In case ,there is good rainfall the yield of the leaves goes up and supply becomes steady.In that season the production unit of the tea garden is at greater stress with low lead time which means shorter time gap in the production system to wait,move,que and set-up and run time for each component produced.On the contrary,if there is low rainfall,the production of green leaves drops and lead time is more as the supply flow is less. However ,risk factor is present during the time of high production ,the tea leaves needs extra care so that it should not expose to moisture and in that case extra manpower is needed on shift duty basis to expedite the process.In the Assam Tea Corporation processing unit ,the production and sales takes place within a day.In this situation production order quabtity model is relevant as the firm is receiving its raw material over a period of time within a day which directly comes from the plucking unit.An optimum level of Q* is calculated to control the inventory. Recommendations In the view of the above discussion an optimum level of inventory can be obtained by reducing the waste in the following steps. 1.Inventory Planning An ideal inventory planning can take place with the arrival of new one immediately after the last unit sold/dispatched. 2.Establish order cycles In case of business with seasonal cycles it is important to establish a relationship of demand between sellers and suppliers. 3.Balance Inventory level Inventory level should be balanced looking into the matters related to market and budget. 4.Review Stocks The stocks should be reviewed as the obsolete one is equivalent to a dead capital. 5.Follow up of stocks The management should take the key decision about disposal,replacement and discontinuance of different inventory base. INVENTORY PLANNING DECISION IN TABULAR FORMAT COST AND OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS SERVICE REQUIREMENT CUSTOMER ORDERING CHARACTERISTICS In this category ,the most important part is customer expectations and competitive practices,time management and influence on customer. Order characteristics include order timing and size,information about large orders on the basis of standing orders. In the tea processing unit ,the customer always is in prompt mode as the order has to reach the market and meet the price fluctuation in the auction market. DEMAND PATTERNS SUPPLY SITUATION Demand pattern is always governed by variability and seasonality.Another important part is presence of substitutes and ability to forecast. The green tea leaves as an inventory effected by variability of the weather condition and effected by rainfall which determines yield of the tea leaves and it is the three quarter of the month the supply is streamlined and one quarter is without any production.The presence of substitute is low and as there is high fluctuation in the market forecasting is not an easy task. This a challenging part as to narrow down the lead time , the processing unit has to avoid any waste .At the same time reliability depends upon the flow of the inventory and at the same flexibility can be ensured with additional work force on call which can also expidiate the process. COST FACTOR NATURE OF THE PRODUCT Again the cost factor is governed by stock out cost which is also a probabilistic measure,there is also cost of carrying and space The nature of the product is perishable and moisture will make it obsolete OTHER ISSUES In the tea processing unit the crucial point is power supply and mechanical efficiency.

Mental Health Issues in Parents: Service Provisions

Mental Health Issues in Parents: Service Provisions Provide a critical evaluation of current methods of working and service user provisions in the area of parents with a mental health problem, drawing upon developing knowledge and research. Introduction In this thesis we discuss the role of parenting, the responsibilities that are involved and the issues of mental health problems in parents. We draw upon existing knowledge and research to understand mental health problems and psychological complications of parents and discuss health and social policies that are related to current methods of working for such parents within social work. Several research studies, legislative reports and health policies are discussed and we provide a critical evaluation of the provisions, current research materials available and issues regarding mental health and psychological problems of parents and service user provisions. In 1998, the Department of Health emphasised on the programme of Modernising Mental Health Services, with three key aims: Safe services to protect the public and provide effective care for those with mental illness at the time they need it Sound services to ensure that patients and service users have access to the full range of services which they need Supportive services working with patients and service users, their families and carers to build healthier communities. (See DoH, 1998) Service User Provisions and Mental Health Studies and Approaches Among the service provisions available to parents with mental health needs, the programme of the National Service Frameworks (NSF) is part of the Government agenda to improve quality and reduce any unacceptable variations in health and social services National Service Frameworks by the Department of Health, cover mental health issues and coronary disease the significant reasons for causing disability and ill health among the adult population in UK. The NSF frameworks address the mental health needs of working age adults and parents and set out the national standards of care and support, the national service models, local action, and national underpinning programmes for implementation and a series of national milestones and performance indicators to measure progress in this sector. National health standards are set out in five areas including mental health promotion; primary care and access to services; effective services for people with severe mental illness; carers of people with me ntal health problems; and reduction of suicides. This applies to tackling mental health problems in parents and provisions for access to care. The National Service Framework for mental health concentrates on the mental health needs of working age adults up to 65, and covers health promotion, assessment and diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation and care, and also encompasses primary and specialist care for these individuals. Adult Placement schemes are available for these individuals who are provided with carers, supported living, home based care and day services and extended family support from the NHS and NIMHE. Mental Health crisis intervention services with rehabilitation, counselling and psychotherapy are also provided by the Health authorities. Several studies discuss the process and value of working with parents when their child or children are being treated with individual psychotherapy (see Robinson et al, 2005). A psychoanalytic understanding of the parents’ perspectives in seeing a mentally ill child and the psychological problems of the parents themselves are considered. The issues discussed have a broader applicability in other aspects and approaches of child and adolescent mental health practice (Zubrick et al, 2005). The central issues are interweaving the knowledge of family processes, child development and psychopathology and the uses of the understanding of transference and counter transference as psychoanalytic concepts. The aspects of the work which constitute child guidance are considered psychotherapeutic as it relates to parental psychopathology. To explore and define the boundaries between psychological process of child and parents, the psychotherapy of parenthood may be analysed and implications of parental psychotherapy can be considered along with childrens problems and issues. Flouri (2005) reviews the evidence of the role of childhood adversities, family structure and issues of parenting in determining youth suicidal behaviour and Flouri emphasises that suicide research could benefit from investigating whether proper parenting can protect suicidal behaviour in young people who are vulnerable and at risks. The operationalization of non optimal parenting has often been considered as a risk factor for adolescent suicidal behaviour and influencing and identifying pathways of influence has been a major target. The measures of reducing suicidal risks in the vulnerable populations also tend to focus on parents with weak material and social resources, mental health problems and few networks, low social and emotional support, and high-risk children. The identification of causative factors relating parent mental condition an parental status might be beneficial in preventing youth suicidal behaviours as measures could be taken from a broad social perspective. Citing one of the case studies, Derisley et al (2005) have attempted psychotherapy of parenthood and have used a study to compare mental health, coping and family functioning in parents of young people with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety disorders, and no known mental health problems. For the methods, 28 parents of young people with OCD, anxiety disorders (N = 28), and no known mental health problems (N = 62), the three different categories of people, all completed Brief Symptom Inventory (Derogatis, 1993), the Coping Responses Inventory (Moos, 1990), and the McMaster family assessment device (Epstein, Baldwin, Bishop, 1983). The results indicated that parents of children with OCD and anxiety disorders had poorer mental health and used more avoidant coping methods than parents of non-clinical and mentally stable children. The results also indicated that there were no significant group differences a measured in three groups in family-functioning. This suggested that the re are basic similarities across parents of clinically referred children and active parental involvement in the treatment of OCD in young people can actually trigger or facilitate the cure and treatment of such young people. Research shows that Black and Minority communities are more likely to suffer from inequalities in access to mental health services, they also report inequalities in their experience of services for mental health care, and they also tend to have more problems and complaints with the outcome of these services. For instance, the Department of Health points out those BME patients are significantly more likely to be detained compulsorily or diagnosed with schizophrenia in mental health situations. The mental health scenario and care provided to minority communities have a direct impact on anti oppressive and anti discriminatory practice. The Department of Health, and the NHS is developing a comprehensive programme of work to tackle inequalities of service provisions to mentally ill patients. In the area of service user provisions for mental health care and support, with an aim to promote anti discriminatory and anti-oppressive practices, the Department of health has identified a strategy for improving mental health services for black and minority ethnic communities in England. Community development workers or social workers are appointed to enhance the capacity within minority ethnic groups, especially adults and parents in dealing with the burden of mental ill health and tackling the inequalities inherent in the services provided. These Community Development Workers contribute to: (source: NIMHE, 2005) Seeking out the strengths and capabilities within particular communities around mental health and the resources available to individuals suffering from mental illness Enabling mental health organisations to bridge the gap between Western models of care and the values and norms of the community they serve Supporting community groups and networks, directing them to resources that are available and funding as appropriate Facilitating community participation and ownership of parents/adults in mental health provision and in combating health inequalities. For provisions of quality services, improved partnership/collaborative work between the NHS, local authorities, prisons, residential homes and the probation services are also required for service development and the care of service users, especially for individuals with severe mental illness. In a study by Hart et al (2005), the implications of user involvement are studied that address the views of clients and their parents on service user delivery in a specialist Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service (CAMHS) serving a population of 250,000.the study explores the complexities inherent in childrens services when parents are integral or involved significantly to different modes of treatment. In the study concerned, 27 teenage clients, 11 boys and 16 girls were recruited from CAMHS and 30 parents were also consulted and they were all from different socioeconomic backgrounds. A series of structured interactive techniques were used by focus groups who also conducted home visits to get interview data. the data was then subject to qualitative analysis and descriptive statistics were generated from interview data and focus groups information. From these data the three issues that were used to describe service user provisions are the core values implicated in establishing a t herapeutic alliance, the style of therapy, and mode of practice with the inclusion of family members. Style of therapy and core therapeutic skills of service providers have been given fundamental importance and Hart et al provided a model of organisational user involvement with a model of therapeutic user involvement for use in negotiating modes of practice with the service user especially in case of mental health practice. The study was thus collaboration between service users, health professionals and researchers and explored different themes of therapy and complexities inherent in childrens services as well as role of parents in mental health care. In fact provisions of parent led self help group and therapeutic approaches are important for achievement of attuned practice. The skills of staff working in adult mental health and child welfare, those that benefit mentally ill parents and their children are recognised by effective collaboration and development of co-ordinated service provision. Health services and local authority staff, as well as workers in education and the voluntary sectors are required to understand the necessities of service provisions. This involves, foundation knowledge, working together and assessment, planning and intervention for mental health care. The attitude of service providers is important and a study by Rasaratnam et al (2004) investigates the influence of attitudes of carers of people with intellectual disability (ID) towards giving medication. In the study 93 carers of service users who were attending an outpatient’s clinic (Harrow Learning Disability service) were interviewed, and the ratings scale used for measures was the RAMS (Rating of Attitude to Medication Scale) interview schedule. The results indicated a single association between relationships of the carer to the service user and overall positive or negative attitude towards medication was also studied. The study found that a disproportionate number of parents have expressed negative attitude in comparison with professional carers (46% vs. 11%) towards medication. the study suggests that standards of compliance with medication needs to be emphasised and researched on especially in case of family carers of mental health problems. Psychiatric disorders se em to have a stigma associated and providing medication for mental illness is still considered unacceptable. The family carers attitude to mental health problems and general mental illness may be shaped by such social and psychological factors. All these issues seem to be important in determining the kind of medication a psychiatric patient should have. In a study by Evans et al (1994), the All-Wales Mental Handicap Strategy (AWS) has promised not just governmental leadership and emphasis on the area of mental health service provisions but also availability of resources for developing community based residential, domiciliary, respite, day-care and professional services for people with mental handicaps and their families. Thus the strategy aims at providing the best for mentally ill people to experience community life. For the study a sample of people with mental handicaps was used to track changes in mental health services received, in professional input, the number of community activities pursued, and the size and range of individuals social networks and involvement in individual planning and the impact of health care strategies. There was a decrease in the proportion of patients living with parents and an increase in those living independently or in another family situation although private residence and serviced residence were bo th equally used for living purposes. Residential service associated with care facilities were also noted and there was marked preference for family based care. Family support services in the form of family aides and short-term care increased significantly, and day service also diversified. The health strategy as followed by the AWS seems to have brought individuals with mental health problems in greater contact with other members of the community although there was no difference in people friendship networks or extent and nature of associations. Yet the service provisions an family and user experiences were found to be in accordance with the direction and goals set by the AWS yet changes are still required and the a new patterns of services have been identified as necessary. The authors point out at the end of the analysis that the mental handicaps do conform to the guiding principles of AWS health strategy and its implications can be significant. If this study is extrapolated to understand the dynamics of the working and provisions for the service user in the contemporary mental health scenario, we can learn several lessons and identify several new provisions that may work with mentally ill patients. Providing a well integrated community network and service provisions at home as well as making resources available to the mentally ill patients either in their residential places or in the community or even at health and clinical settings could be major priorities of any health care strategy. The AWS strategy can thus be a blueprint or a primer for further modern health strategies and provides us with an opportunity for critical appraisal of service provisions that can be made available to mentally ill individuals in need of special care and support. There are however several issues that need to be considered as important in a critical evaluation of service user provisions for mentally ill patients. One of these issues involves improvement of the quality of information about clients referred to a community mental health team for referral purposes. For improved services to clients, improved information is also necessary and new ways of devising this quick availability of information should be encouraged. The second recommendation for improving service provisions involves following clinical guidelines. Michie and Lester (2005) determine whether writing or written clinical guideline recommendations in behaviourally specified plain English language can increase the likelihood of their implementation by service users or the patients. Following clinical guidelines, medication or therapy procedures is an important aspect of treatment and improvement of service user provisions can be made by stronger emphasis and written specification of approved and recommended guidelines. A evaluation of behavioural outcome and the inclination of following these guidelines should also be studied. Using and providing specialist service as in specialist educational intervention for acute inpatient mental health nursing staff and service user views in this regard have been studied. Richards et al (2005) evaluated the impact of an innovative 18-day educational intervention for acute ward-based mental healthcare nursing staff on reported quality of nursing care and on service user views of care using the educational intervention. The quality of inpatient mental health care for people with acute psychiatric problems has remained questionable and several studies have suggested that specialist educational courses and nursing interventions are needed to improve these services. An integration of health and social service care provisions and also day care for mental health patients have been emphasised considering social networks and care needs of the users. Increasing integration of health care and social services requires understanding the difference between health service day hospitals and social service day centres. A study by Catty et al (2005) has suggested that day centre clients had much larger social networks, including a three-fold difference in total contacts and two-fold difference in confidants, but had more needs for care, particularly relating to psychological distress. Our final recommendation for service user care for mental health patients and parents in a mentally ill home ambience is greater involvement of service users in mental health service planning and evaluation. Thornicroft and Tansella (2005) emphasise that service user involvement in the planning and provision of mental health services has been growing in recent years especially in areas where institutional service provision has been changed to a more community-orientated model of care. Recent studies have shown that during mental health crises, joint crisis plans by health providers and service users can significantly reduce the use of compulsory admission during crises. Conclusion: In this essay we provided a critical analysis of the provisions and policies provided by social services and health care services and evaluated the need for certain practices in providing quality service to service users with mental health needs. Bibliography Catty J, Goddard K, Burns T.  Social services and health services day care in mental health: the social networks and care needs of their users. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2005 Mar;51(1):23-34. Chamberlin J.  User/consumer involvement in mental health service delivery. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc. 2005 Jan-Mar;14(1):10-4. Derisley J, Libby S, Clark S, Reynolds S.  Mental health, coping and family-functioning in parents of young people with obsessive-compulsive disorder and with anxiety disorders. Br J Clin Psychol. 2005 Sep;44(Pt 3):439-44. Evans G, Todd S, Beyer S, Felce D, Perry J.  Assessing the impact of the All-Wales Mental Handicap Strategy: a survey of four districts. J Intellect Disabil Res. 1994 Apr;38 ( Pt 2):109-33. Flouri E.  Psychological and sociological aspects of parenting and their relation to suicidal behavior. Arch Suicide Res. 2005;9(4):373-83. Hart A, Saunders A, Thomas H.  Attuned practice: a service user study of specialist child and adolescent mental health, UK. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc. 2005 Jan-Mar;14(1):22-31. Jones A, Jones M.  Mental health nurse prescribing: issues for the UK. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs. 2005 Oct;12(5):527-35. Michie S, Lester K.  Words matter: increasing the implementation of clinical guidelines. Qual Saf Health Care. 2005 Oct;14(5):367-70. Minogue V, Boness J, Brown A, Girdlestone J.  The impact of service user involvement in research. Int J Health Care Qual Assur Inc Leadersh Health Serv. 2005;18(2-3):103-12. Reid D, Glascott G, Woods D.  Improving referral information in community mental health. Nurs Times. 2005 Oct 18-24;101(42):34-5. Robinson AD, Kruzich JM, Friesen BJ, Jivanjee P, Pullmann MD.  Preserving Family Bonds: Examining Parent Perspectives in the Light of Practice Standards for Out-of-Home Treatment. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2005 Oct;75(4):632-43. Rea DM.  Changing practice: involving mental health service users in planning service provision. Soc Work Health Care. 2004;39(3-4):325-42. Rasaratnam R, Crouch K, Regan A.  Attitude to medication of parents/primary carers of people with intellectual disability. J Intellect Disabil Res. 2004 Nov;48(Pt 8):754-63. Richards D, Bee P, Loftus S, Baker J, Bailey L, Lovell K.  Specialist educational intervention for acute inpatient mental health nursing staff: service user views and effects on nursing quality. J Adv Nurs. 2005 Sep;51(6):634-44. Thornicroft G, Tansella M.  Growing recognition of the importance of service user involvement in mental health service planning and evaluation. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc. 2005 Jan-Mar;14(1):1-3. Zubrick SR, Ward KA, Silburn SR, Lawrence D, Williams AA, Blair E, Robertson D, Sanders MR.  Prevention of Child Behavior Problems Through Universal Implementation of a Group Behavioral Family Intervention. Prev Sci. 2005 Sep 14;:1-18 For Department of Health publications, see Mental health section DoH www.dh.gov.uk http://www.dh.gov.uk/PolicyAndGuidance/HealthAndSocialCareTopics/MentalHealth/fs/en also see NIMHE website, for role of Community Development workers. http://www.nimhe.org.uk/

Photosynthesis :: essays research papers

Photosynthesis 1. Would you illuminate your house plants with a green light bulb? Why or why not? It would not be a wise choice to put a plant under a green light bulb. The reason for this is that due to the fact that the leaves are green they reflect green light. This shining green light onto the flowers will cause photosynthesis to stop. Since the light is being reflectd, the cells do not get any light. With out light they cannot carry out the everyday occurance of photosyntesis. If the choice was mine, I would place them into violet light, because almost none of it would be reflected. 2. Explain the statement: "Without autotrophic organisms, heterotrophic lofe would cease to exist." Without autotrophic organisms heterotrophic organisms would not be able to survive for two asic reasons. One is the fact that autotrophic organisms create most of the oxygen that heterotrophs breath. Whithout them, heterotrophs which need oxygen to survive would not live very long. The second reason is that autotrophs are the lowest food on the food chart. Without them many heterotrops would die from starvation. 3. Why did you put your syringes containing leaf material in the dark prior to illumination? The reason this was done was to make sure as little oxygen as possible was contained in the leaf material. This coused the experimrnt to run properly. If the leaf material was not placed in the dark, the dark reaction would not have occured using up all the oxygen. If there was still oxygen in the leaf material, the data collected would have been off. The reason for this is that the leaves would have risen to the top of the liqiud quicker, because they would not have had to make the totql amount of oxygen. 4. State you hypothesis for the directed experiment. The leaves in the sodium bicarbonate will rise to the top of the syringes faster than the ones in the distilled water will.

Constitutional Framers Essay -- American History, Washington D.C.

The Constitutional Framers envisioned a national government that, like Plato’s cave, would be â€Å"at a distance and out of sight† of the everyday affairs and thoughts of ordinary Americans. They had envisioned Washington D.C. to be a cultural mecca on par with the capitals of European nations, both economically and socially. The reality of the Washington Community was a disaster compared to the lofty ambitions of the founding fathers; a desolate purgatory to be endured. The socially and economically barren capital combined Spartan living conditions with isolation. High turnover was prevalent in both the house and senate; a disappointment to the Federalists who had hoped for institutional memory within congress. Instead of creating the new form of â€Å"national† and â€Å"long term† thinking by men of prominence, congressmen turned to fellow members of boarding houses for a sense of legitimacy and guidance. Boarding houses were organized along regi onal lines and served to enforce differences between geographical communities; the isolation the founders had hoped would lead to a unique national identity inadvertently strengthened regional ties. The Framers had to isolate the Washington community; removing congressmen from the outside influence of state politics would protect against corruption. â€Å"From this time until the objective was realized, it was never seriously disputed that the government ought to have a home and to wield sole authority over the environs; and when Congress at last reached its permanent abode in Washington, that body showed how dearly it prized its freedom from local interference by refusing the District’s citizenry the right of formal participation in not only national but also state government† (Young, p.96).... ...ir extra official life their constitutional separation in official life† (Young, p. 120). In the early Washington community, the framers achieved isolation but this did not produce the anticipated result of national mind set and body of thought. Rather than elevating the nation’s leaders to a place of prominence, the Washington Community provided no sense of legitimacy. Barbaric conditions and isolation reinforced regional ties; congressmen generally endured a single term before returning to the prestigious and considerably more comfortable job of state politics. Rather than motived by legacy, congressional terms seemed a hardship everyone was eventually forced endure at some point in their political career. The Constitutional Framers succeeded in some aspects but their vision was circumvented by the wasteland which served as the new nation’s capital.

Media and the Idea of Beauty Essay

Elizabeth Rosales Cultural Anthropology-A18: Yi,Zhou April 21, 2011 Response Paper: Killing Us Softly Who are we? Who am I? With the average American exposed to approximately 3,000 ads a day they all remind us of who we are not and who we should be. The images we are constantly bombarded with by the mass media don’t just sell products they â€Å"sell values, images, concepts of love, sex, and normativity†, standards to which we so often compare ourselves to. Ads reinforce gender binaries, all making a statement about what it means to be a woman in this culture of thinness stressing a particular importance on physical beauty. Jean Kilbourne’s film Killing Us Softly explores and exposes the detrimental effects of the objectification and dehumanization in the representation of women in the popular culture, specifically advertisements. With only less than five percent of women of the entire population that reflect the images of the women advertised, the majority of women are left to feel ashamed for not trying hard enough. Women’s bodies are increasingly subjected to strict scrutiny under a magnifying glass by our superficial culture, these actions bring forth and further feed the shame and embarrassment women associate with their bodies, their sexuality, their size, and their weight. Spending self-conscious days, weeks, months, and even years in front of a mirror and scale, inspecting our bodies in front of a mirror comparing ourselves to the images spread over magazine covers as women we are repeatedly reminded that our bodies are home to imperfections and there is always room for improvement whether that be through exercise, plastic surgery, dieting, or over the counter â€Å"beauty and health† products. Rosales 2 Is this self-improvement or self-destruction? Today, 1 in 5 women are likely to develop an eating disorder and cosmetic surgery is more popular than ever before. More and more women each day are going under the knife for breast enhancements losing all sensation in their breasts. Such procedures dehumanize and objectify women transforming them from â€Å"subjects to objects†, all because as women we are conditioned by the dominant culture to want to feel desirable and seek the approval of men. The breasts, therefore, become a source of pleasure for the men and not the women who undergo the procedure. These internalized feelings drive many to strive to obtain an unattainable beauty and live up to certain impossible expectations whether it’s consciously or not. We fail to recognize that most of the images we are exposed to are computer generated, they are not real women they have been photo shopped and manipulated to look like that and yet we continue to perpetuate these images as the standards for beauty. Much more, the standards that women are expected to live up to is a paradox of ideas, we are to be both â€Å"innocent and sexy, virgin and experienced† child/doll-like and sex objects simultaneously. Can that be any more absurd? Gender is a performance that the mass media is largely responsible for defining, if we are not thin or beautiful enough then we are not feminine enough. The oppression and misrepresentation of women is not limited to gender though, race plays an active role in the representation of women. Asian women for example, are depicted as docile and passive lovers, whereas black and Hispanic women are hyper sexualized and portrayed as exotic promiscuous â€Å"creatures† dressed in animal prints. The perfect ideal woman was manufactured and it’s time we recognize this, she is an illusion that doesn’t exist outside of caricature. Instead of altering our Rosales 3 bodies to fit those Barbie doll like measurements we need to start portraying the large diversity of women accurately and stop condemning those who are not thin enough, tall enough, light enough, as not being beautiful because they aren’t trying hard enough to fit those categories.

For small businesses, does the reality of using social and new media in marketing live up to the promise? A qualitative study amongst business owners in the UK

Abstract The area of emerging technology and marketing has become an topic of increased debate as the potential to reach more consumers and provide real savings for small business is created. This study assesses the impact that emerging communication technology has had on the marketing efforts of small businesses in the UK. 1 Introduction1.1 Research TopicThis study assesses the impact that emerging communication technology has on the marketing efforts of small businesses in the UK. In order to properly evaluate each element, this study uses a survey given to several owners and operators in the UK coupled with a case study centred on the small business in the London area to provide evidence for industry and cultural assessment. These factors will be used to illustrate detailed components of operation and implementation for small businesses in the UK. With a focus for identifying distinct themes in the survey results, this research seeks to combine working experience with social expectation to provide an illustration of potential opportunity.1.2 Objectives1) Assess technological impact on small business 2) Evaluate how communication technology provides opportunities for growth.1.3 Research questions1) What are the challenges faced by small business in marketing? 2) Can improved consumer outreach improve revenue? 3) Does new technology offer a competitive edge for small business? 2 Review of Literature2.1 Small Business ChallengesMarketing is an essential element of small business strategy (Safko et al, 2009). With a clear need to remain in the consumer eye, marketing has the potential to make or break any small business (Qualman, 2009).2.1.1 Current MethodsCurrent methods of marketing include television, print and word of mouth (Qualman, 2008). Further, any advertising must be local or regional, facing increased cost (Safko et al, 2009).2.1.2. Emerging methodsInternet and communication technology provide social media, online content and increased consumer exposure for small businesses(Berthon et al, 2012; Fischer et al, 2011;Weinberg et al, 2011). Networking and comprehensive data bases encourage consumers to look deeply into a small business, providing ample opportunity for revenue growth.2.2 Small business Competitive Strategy and opportunities for growthUsing technology to reach consumers, aids outreach as well as provides a new and growing market for any business (Baird et al, 2011).2.3 Spending and Consumer OutreachModern methods of marketing require crucial funds that could otherwise to other areas of a small business strategy (Wienberg et al, 2011). This increased leeway provides opportunity for reinvestment in the infrastructure.2.4 Working TheoryUsing a thematic survey approach provides critical evidence to any working research (Perri et al, 2012). Combined with an assessment of the case study using Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, establishes the likelihood of adoption and implementation (Hofstede et al, 2010). 3 Methodology3.1 ApproachThis study is best approach with the Qualitative, Interpretivism process (Perri, 2012). Initial evidence will be provided using a survey given to between 100-150 respondents creating data that will be assessed using a thematic, coding approach (Perri, 2012). Case study is based on the small business sector in London, UK which provides government facts and official figure (Perri, 2012). The evidence is combined and evaluated using the thematic coding to identify themes in the material followed by a Hofstede analysis to provide useable examples of impact and improvement.3.2 Research StrategyQualitative research based on surveys and case study (Perri, 2012).3.3 Data Collection Instruments and MethodsSurvey and questionnaire coupled with a modern case study taken from online databases, official sites, journals and books. 4 Analysis4.1 Case Study of Small Business in London, UK 2010-20144.1.1 Thematic analysis of surveysIdentifying themes that relate to the positive or negative experience of technology use in marketing (Perri, 2012).4.1.2. Hofstede’s Cultural dimensions evaluation of case study and surveysProvides a working cultural understanding as to why or why not small business owners are embracing new technology opportunities (Hofstede et al, 2010).4.2 Discussion5 Conclusion and Recommendations5.1 Conclusion5.2 Recommendation6 References Baird, C. and Parasnis, G. (2011). From social media to social customer relationship management. Strategy & Leadership, 39(5), pp.30–37. Berthon, P., Pitt, L., Plangger, K. and Shapiro, D. (2012). Marketing meets Web 2.0, social media, and creative consumers: Implications for international marketing strategy. Business Horizons, 55(3), pp.261–271. Evans, D. (2008). Social media marketing. 1st ed. Indianapolis, Ind.: Wiley. Fischer, E. and Reuber, A. (2011). Social interaction via new social media:(How) can interactions on Twitter affect effectual thinking and behavior?. Journal of business venturing, 26(1), pp.1–18. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. and Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations. 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Michaelidou, N., Siamagka, N. and Christodoulides, G. (2011). Usage, barriers and measurement of social media marketing: An exploratory investigation of small and medium B2B brands.Industrial Marketing Management, 40(7), pp.1153–1159. Qualman, E. (2009). Socialnomics. 1st ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. Safko, L. and Brake, D. (2009). The social media bible. 1st ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. Weinberg, B. and Pehlivan, E. (2011). Social spending: Managing the social media mix. Business Horizons, 54(3), pp.275–282. Weinberg, T. (2009). The new community rules. 1st ed. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly.